Category Archives: Disks

Having fun with your storage vendor and get the information to fit your data center

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I was on my way to Singapore yesterday. At the departure lounge, I just started reading “Data Center Storage” by Hubbert Smith (ISBN#: 978-1439834879) yesterday and I learned something very interesting immediately. Then my thoughts started stirring and I thought I have a bit of fun with what I have learned from the book.

The single, most significant piece of the storage solution is the hard disk drive (HDD). Regardless of SAN or NAS protocols, the data is stored and served from the hard disk drives. And there are 4 key metrics of a HDD, which are

  • Price
  • Performance
  • Capacity
  • Power

As storage professionals, we are often challenged to deliver the best storage solution to meet the customer’s requirements. Therefore, it is not about providing the fastest IOPS or the best availability or the lowest price. It is about providing the best balance of the 4 key metrics above.

The 4 metrics are of little help when they are standalone but if they are combined in relation to each other, you as a customer, can obtain some measurable ratios that will be useful to size for a requirements, keeping the balance of the 4 key metrics better defined rather than getting fluff and BS from the storage vendor.

In the book, the following table was displayed and I found it to be extremely useful:

Key Ratios for HDDs
 Ratio
Performance/Price IOPS/$
Performance/Power IOPS/watt
Capacity/Price GB/$
Capacity/Power GB/watt

The relational ratios in red are going to be useful in determining the right type of storage for the requirement. And we will come back to this later. We begin our quest to obtain the information that we want – Performance, Capacity, Price, Power.

Capacity is the easy one because it is a given fact the size of the HDDs.

IOPS for each type of HDDs is also easy to obtain. See table below:

Disk Type RPM IOPS Range
SATA 5,400 50-75
SATA 7,200 75-100
SAS/FC 10,000 100-125
SAS/FC 15,000 175-200
SSD N/A 5,000-10,000

The watt of each HDDs is also quite easy. Just ask the vendor to give the specification of the HDDs.

The pricing part would be part where we can have a bit of fun with the storage vendor. Usually, storage vendors do not release the price of a single HDD in the quotation. The total price is lumped together with everything else, making it harder to decipher the price. So, what can the customer do?

Easy. Get 4-5 quotations from the storage vendor, each with different type of HDDs. This is the customer’s rights. For example, I have created several fictitious quotations, each with a different type of HDDs/SSD and pricing.

Quote #1 (SATA 7200 RPM)

 

Quote #2 (SAS 10,000 RPM)

 

Quote #3 (SAS 15,000 RPM)

 

Quote #4 (SSD)

 

From the 4 quotations, we cannot ascertain the true price of a single disk, but we can assume that the 12 units HDDs/SSDs take up 50% of the entire quotation. With all things being equal, especially the quantity of 12, we can establish the very rough estimate of the price. Having fun asking the storage vendor to run around with the quotations is the added bonus.

But we can derive the following figures (rough estimates but useful when we apply them to the key ratios above)

1TB SATA = 3333.33; 300GB 10,000 RPM SAS = 5000.00; 300GB 15,000 RPM SAS = 6250.00; 100GB SSD = 10416.66

When we juxtapose the information that we have collected i.e. price, performance and capacity (ok, I am skipping power/watt because I am lazy to find out), we come up with a table below:

In the boxed area, we can now easily determine which HDDs/SSDs that give the best value for money either Performance/$ or Capacity/$. The higher the key ratio, the better the value.

From this aspect, the customer can now determine methodically which type of disk he should invest into, in order to get the best value.

This is just a very simplistic method to find the value of the storage solution to be purchased. Bear in mind that there are many other factors to consider as well, such as rack unit height, total power consumption, storage efficiency, data protection and many more.

I am not taking credit for what Hufferd Smith has proposed. All kudos to him but I am using his method to apply to what is relevant to us on the field.

In conclusion, the customer won’t be baffled and confused thinking that they got the best deal at lowest price or fastest performance. This crude method can help turn perception into something that is more concrete and analytical. It’s time we, as customer, know our rights, and know what we are buying into and have a bit of fun too with the storage vendor.

Copy-on-Write and SSDs – A better match than other file systems?

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We have been taught that file systems are like folders, sub-folders and eventually files. The criteria in designing file systems is to ensure that there are few key features

  • Ease of storing, retrieving and organizing files (sounds like a fridge, doesn’t it?)
  • Simple naming convention for files
  • Performance in storing and retrieving files – hence our write and read I/Os
  • Resilience in restoring full or part of a file when there are discrepancies

In file systems performance design, one of the most important factors is locality. By locality, I mean that data blocks of a particular file should be as nearby as possible. Hence, in most file systems designs originated from the Berkeley Fast File System (BFFS), requires the file system to seek the data block to be modified to ensure locality, i.e. you try not to split up the contiguity of the data blocks. The seek time to find the require data block takes time, but you are compensate with faster reads because the read-ahead feature allows you to read extra blocks ahead in anticipation that the data blocks are related.

In Copy-on-Write file systems (also known as shadow-paging file systems), the seek portion is usually not present because the new modified block is written somewhere else, not the present location of the original block. This is the foundation of Copy-on-Write file systems such as NetApp’s WAFL and Oracle Solaris ZFS. Because the new data blocks are written somewhere else, the storing (write operation) portion is faster. It eliminated the seek time and it also skipped the read-modify-write action to the original location of the data block. Therefore, write is likely to be faster.

However, the read portion will be slower because if you want to read a file, the file system has to go around looking for the data blocks because it lacks the locality. Therefore, as the COW file system ages, it tends to have higher file system fragmentation. I wrote about this in my previous blog. It is a case of ENJOY-FIRST/SUFFER-LATER. I am not writing this to say that COW file systems are bad. Obviously, NetApp and Oracle have done enough homework to make the file systems one of the better storage file systems in the market.

So, that’s Copy-on-Write file systems. But what about SSDs?

Solid State Drives (SSDs) will make enemies with file systems that tend prefer locality. Remember that some file systems prefer its data blocks to be contiguous? Well, SSDs employ “wear-leveling” and required writes to be spread out as much as possible across the SSDs device to prolong the life of the SSD device to reduce “wear-and-tear”. That’s not good news because SSDs just told the file systems, “I don’t like locality and I will spread out the data blocks“.

NAND Flash SSDs (the common ones we find in the market and not DRAM-based SSDs) are funny creatures. When you write to SSDs, you must ERASE first, WRITE AGAIN to the SSDs. This is the part that is creating the wear-and tear of the device. When I mean ERASE first, WRITE AGAIN, I describe it below

  • Writing 1 –> 0 (OK, no problem)
  • Writing 0 –> 1 (not OK, because NAND Flash can’t do that)

So, what does the SSD do? It ERASES everything, writing the entire data blocks on the device to 1s, and then converting some of them to 0s. Crazy, isn’t it? The firmware in the SSDs controller will also spread out the erase-and-then write operations across the entire SSD device to avoid concentrating the operations on a small location or dataset. This is the “wear-leveling” we often hear about.

Since SSDs shun locality and avoid the data blocks to be nearby, and Copy-on-Write file systems are already doing this because its nature to write new data blocks somewhere else, the combination of both COW file system and SSDs seems like a very good fit. It even looks symbiotic because it is a case of “I help you; and you help me“.

From this perspective, the benefits of COW file systems and SSDs extends beyond resiliency of the SSD device but also in performance. Since the data blocks are spread out at different locations in the SSD device, the effect of parallelism will inadvertently help with COW’s performance. Make sense, doesn’t it?

I have not learned about other file systems and how they behave with SSDs, but it is pretty clear that Copy-on-Write file systems works well with Solid State Devices. Have a good week ahead :-)!

What kind of IOPS and throughput do you get from RAID-5/6? – Part 2

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In my previous blog entry, I mentioned the write penalty for RAID-5/6. This factor will figure heavily in the way we size the RAID-level for performance capacity planning.

It is difficult to ascertain what kind of IOPS and throughput that are required for an application, especially a database, to run well with additional room to grow. From a DBA or an application developer, I believe they would have adequate information to tell what is the numbers of users that the application can support, both average and peak, transactions per second (TPS), block size required for logs, database files and so on.

But as we are all aware, most of the time, these types of information are not readily available. So, coming from a storage angle, the storage administrator can advise the DBA or the application developer that the configured RAID group or volume or LUN is capable of delivering a certain number of IOPS and is able to achieve a certain throughput MB/sec. These numbers will be off the box itself immediately. Of course, other factors such as HBA speed, the FC/iSCSI configurations, the network traffic and so on will affect the overall performance delivery to the application. But we can safely inform the DBA and/or the application developer that this is what the storage is delivering out of the box.

The building blocks of all storage RAID groups/volumes/LUNs are pretty much your hard disk drives (HDDs) and/or Solid State Drives (SSDs). The manufacturer of these disks will usually publish the IOPS and throughput of individual drives but if these information is not available, we can construct IOPS of an individual HDD from its seek and latency times.

For example, if the HDD’s

average latency = 2.8 ms;          average read seek = 4.2 ms;              average write seek = 4.8 ms

then the IOPS can be calculated as

                                  1
         IOPS = ---------------------------------------
                (average latency) + (average seek time)

Therefore from the details above,

                    1
         IOPS = -------------------  = 136.986 IOPS
                (0.0028) + (0.0045)

That’s pretty simple, right? But of course, it is easier to just accept that a certain type of disk will have a range of IOPS as shown in the table below:

Disk Type RPM IOPS Range
SATA 5,400 50-75
SATA 7,200 75-100
SAS/FC 10,000 100-125
SAS/FC 15,000 175-200
SSD N/A 5,000-10,000

The information from the table above is just for reference only and by no means a very accurate one but it is good enough for us to determine the IOPS of a RAID group/volume/LUN. Let’s look at the RAID write penalty again in the table below:

RAID-level Number of I/O Reads
 Number of I/O for Writes
 RAID Write Penalty
0 1 1 1
1 (1+0, 0+1) 1 2 2
5 1 4 4
6 1 6 6

Next, we need to know what is the ratio of Reads vs Writes for that particular database or application. I mentioned earlier that in OLTP-type of applications, we usually take a 2:1 or 3:1 ratio in favour of Reads.

To make things simpler, let’s assume we create a RAID-6 volume of 6 data disks and 2 parity disks in a RAID-6 (6+2) configuration. The disks used are SATA disks of 7,200 RPM, with each individual disk of 100 IOPS. Assume we are using a ratio of 2:1 in favour of Reads, which gives us 66.666% and 33.333% respectively for Reads and Writes.

Therefore, the combined IOPS of the 8 disks in the RAID-6 configuration is probably about 800 IOPS. However, because of the write penalty of RAID-6, the effective IOPS for the RAID-6 volume will be lower than that. Let’s do some calculation to see what happens:

1)  Read IOPS + Write IOPS = 800 IOPS

2)  (0.66666 x 800) + (0.33333 x 800) = 800 IOPS

3) Read IOPS will be 0.66666 x 800 = 533.328 IOPS

4) Write IOPS will be 0.33333 x 800 = 266.664 IOPS. However, since RAID-6 has a write penalty of 6, this number has to be divided by 6. 266.664/6 will be 44.444 IOPS for Writes

Therefore, what the RAID-6 volume is capable of is approximately 533 IOPS for Reads and 44 IOPS for Writes.

We have determined IOPS for the RAID volume but what about throughput. Throughput is determined by the block size used. Assume that our RAID-6 volume uses a 4-K block size. With a combined effective IOPS of 577 (533+44), we multiply the IOPS with the block size

     Throughput = 577 IOPS x 4-KB
                = 2308KB/sec

Therefore when I/O is sustained in a sequential manner, the effective throughput is 2308KB/sec.

On the other hand, we often were told to add more spindles to the volume to increase the IOPS. This is true, to a point, where the maximum amount of IOPS that can be delivered will taper into a flatline, because the I/O channel to the RAID volume  has been saturated. Therefore, it is best to know that adding more spindles does not always equate to a higher IOPS.

Performance sizing for a database or an application is both a science and an art. Mathematically, we can prove things to a a certain amount of accuracy and confidence but each storage platform is very different in the way they handle RAID. Newer storage platforms have proprietary RAID that nowadays, it does not matter much what kind of RAID is best for the application. Vendors such as IBM XIV has RAID-X which both radical in design and implementation. NetApp will almost always say RAID-DP is the best no matter what, because RAID-DP is all NetApp.

So there is no right or wrong to choose the RAID-level for the application. But it is VERY important to know what are the best practice are and my advice is everyone is to do Proof-of-Concepts, and TEST, TEST, TEST! And ASK QUESTIONS!

Don’t RAID-5/6 everything! – Part 1

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It’s a beautiful Saturday morning … the sun is out, and the birds are chirping … and here I am, thinking about RAID-5/6. What’s wrong with me?

Anyway, have you ever wondered almost all your volumes are in a RAID-5/6 configuration? Like an obedient child, the answer would probably be “Oh, my vendor said it is good for me …”

In storage, the rule is applications-read, applications-write. And different applications have different behaviors but typically, they fall under 2 categories:

  • Random access
  • Sequential access

The next question to ask is how much Read/Writes ratio (or percentage) is in that Random Access behavior and how much of Read/Write ratio in Sequential Access behavior.

We usually pigeonhole transactional databases such as SQL Server, Oracle into OLTP-type characteristics with random access being the dominant access method. Similarly, email applications such as Exchange, Lotus and even SMTP into similar OLTP-type characteristics as well. We typically do a 2:1 or 3:1 ratio for OLTP-type applications with Read heavy and less of Writes. Data warehouse type of databases tend to be more sequential.

However, even within these OLTP applications, there are also sequential access behaviors as well, as the following table for a database shows:

Operation Random or Sequential Read/Write Heavy Block Size
DB-Log Random (Sequential in log recovery) Write Heavy unless you are doing log recovery 1KB – 64KB
DB-Data Files Random Read/Write mix dependent on load 4KB – 32KB
Batch insert Sequential Write Heavy 8KB – 128KB
Index scan Sequential Read Heavy 8KB – 128KB

We will look into 4 RAID-levels in this scenario and see how each RAID-level applies to an OLTP-type of environment. These RAID levels are RAID-0, RAID-1 (1+0, 0+1 included), RAID-5 and RAID-6.

RAID-0 is the baseline, with 1 x Read and 1 x Write being processed as per normal.

In RAID-1, it would require 2 x Writes and 1 x Read, because the write operation is mirrored. The RAID penalty is 2.

To avoid the cost of RAID-1, RAID-5 is almost always the RAID level of choice (unless you speak to those NetApp fellas). RAID-5 is a parity-based RAID and require 2 x Read (1 to read the data block and 1 to read the parity block) AND 2 x Write (1 to write the modified block and 1 to write the modified parity). Hence it has a RAID penalty of 4.

RAID-6 was to address the risk of RAID-5 because disk capacity are so freaking large now (3TB just came out). To rebuild a large-TB drive would take longer time and the RAID-5 volume is at risk if a second disk failure occurs. Hence, double parity RAID in RAID-6. But unfortunately, the RAID penalty for RAID-6 is 6!

To summarize the RAID write penalty,

RAID-level Number of I/O Reads
 Number of I/O for Writes
 RAID Write Penalty
0 1 1 1
1 (1+0, 0+1) 1 2 2
5 1 4 4
6 1 6 6

So, it is well known that RAID 0 has good performance for reads and writes but with absolutely no protection. RAID-1 would be good for random reads and writes but it is costly. RAID-5 is good for applications with a high ratio of sequential reads vs writes (2:1, 3:1 as mentioned), and RAID-6, errr … should be taken similarly as RAID-5 with some additional performance penalty.

With that in mind, a storage administrator must question why a particular RAID-level was proposed to the database or any like-applications.

I am going out to enjoy the Saturday now … and today, August 13th is the World’s Left-Handed Day. More about this RAID penalty and IOPS in my next entry.

Nimbus beats NetApp at Ebay – The details and the conspiracy of vendors

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In my last entry, I mentioned that Nimbus has now 100TB in eBay and every single TB of it is on SSDs. The full details of how the deal was trashed out are detailed here, beating the competition from NetApp and 3PAR, the incumbents.

The significance of the deal was how a full SSDs system was able to out-price the storage arrays with a hybrid of spinning disks and SSDs.

The Nimbus news just obliterated the myth that SSDs are expensive. If you do the math, perhaps the price of the entire storage systems is not the SSDs. It could be the way some vendors structure their software licensing scheme or a combination of license, support and so on.

Just last week, we were out there discussing about hard disks and SSDs. The crux of the discussion was around pricing and the customer we were speaking too was perplexed that  the typical SATA disks from vendors such as HP, NetApp and so on cost a lot more than the Enterprise HDDs and SSDs you get from the distributors. Sometimes it is a factor of 3-4x.

I was contributing my side of the story that one unit of 1TB SATA (mind you, this is an Enterprise-grade HDD from Seagate) from a particular vendor would cost about RM4,000 to RM5,000. The usual story that we were trained when we worked for vendors was, “Oh, these disks had to be specially provisioned with our own firmware, and we can monitor their health with our software and so on ….”. My partner chipped in and cleared the BS smoke screen and basically, the high price disks comes with high margins for the vendor to feed the entire backline of the storage product, from sales, to engineers, to engineering and so on. He hit the nail right on the head because I believe a big part of the margin of each storage systems goes back to feed the vendor’s army of people behind the product.

In my research, a 2TB enterprise-grade SATA HDDs in Malaysia is approximately RM1,000 or less. Similar a SAS HDDs would be slightly higher, by 10-15%, while an enterprise-grade SSD is about RM3,000 or less. And this is far less than what is quoted by the vendors of storage arrays.

Of course, the question would be, “can the customer put in their own hard disks or ask the vendor to purchase cheaper hard disks from a cheaper source?” Apparently not! Unless you buy low end NAS from the likes of NetGear, Synology, Drobo and many low-end storage systems. But you can’t bet your business and operations on the reliability of these storage boxes, can you? Otherwise, it’s your head on the chopping block.

Eventually, the customers will demand such a “feature”. They will want to put in their own hard disks (with proper qualification from the storage vendor) because they will want cheaper HDDs or SSDs. It is already happening with some enterprise storage vendors but these vendors are not well known yet. It is happening though. I know of one vendor in Malaysia who could do such a thing …

SSDs coming into mainstream … be Ready!

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There has been a slew of SSD news in the storage blogosphere with the big one from eBay.

eBay has just announced that it has 100TB of SSDs from Nimbus Data Systems. On top of that, OCZ, SanDisk and STEC, all major SSD manufacturers, have announced a whole lot of new products with the PCIe SSD cards leading the way. The most interesting thing was the factor of $/GB has gone down significantly, getting very close to the $/GB of spinning disks. This is indeed good news to the industry because SSDs delivers low latency, high IOPS, low power consumption and many other new benefits.

Side note: As I am beginning to understand more about SSDs, I found out that NAND flash SSD has a latency in the microseconds compared to spinning HDDs, which has milliseconds latency range. In addition to that DRAM SSDs have latency that is in the range of nano seconds, which is basically memory type of access. DRAM SSDs are of course, more expensive. 

The SSDs are coming very soon into the mainstream, and this will inadvertently, drive a new generation of applications and accelerate growth in knowledge acquisition. We are already seeing the decline of Fibre Channel disks and the rise of SAS and SATA disks but SSDs in the enterprise storage, as far as I am concerned, brings forth 2 new challenges which we, as professionals and users in the storage networking environment, must address.

These challenges can be simplified to

  1. Are we ready?
  2. Where is the new bottleneck?

To address the first challenge, we must understand the second challenge first.

In system architectures, we know of various of performance bottlenecks that exist either in CPU, memory, bus, bridge, buffer, I/O devices and so on. In order to deliver the data to be process, we have to view the data block/byte service request in its entirety.

When a user request for a file, this is a service request. The end objective is the user is able to read and write the file he/she requested. The time taken from the beginning of the request to the end of it, is known as service time, which latency plays a big part of it. We assume that the file resides in a NAS system in the network.

The request for the file begins by going through the file system layer of the host the user is accessing, then to the user and kernel space, moving on through the device driver of the NIC card, through the TCP/IP stack (which has its own set of buffer overheads and so on), passing the request through the physical wire. From there it moves on through the NAS system with the RAID system, file system and so on until it reaches the file request. Note that I have shortened the entire process for simple explanation but it shows that the service request passes through a whole lot of things in order to complete the request.

Bottlenecks exist everywhere within the service request path and is also subjected to external factors related to that service request. For a long, long time, I/O has been biggest bottleneck to the processing of the service request because it is usually and almost always the slowest component in the entire scheme of things.

The introduction of SSDs will improve the I/O performance tremendously, into the micro- or even nano-seconds range, putting it in almost equal performance terms with other components in the system architecture. The buses and the bridges in the computer systems could be the new locations where the bottleneck of a service request exist. Hence we have use this understanding to change the modus operandi of the existing types of applications such as databases, email servers and file servers.

The usual tried-and-tested best practices may have to be changed to adapt to the shift of the bottleneck.

So, we have to equip ourselves with what SSDs is doing and will do to the industry. We have to be ready and take advantage of this “quiet” period to learn and know more about SSD technology and what the experts are saying. I found a great website that introduces and speaks about SSD in depth. It is called StorageSearch and it is what I consider the best treasure trove on the web right now for SSD information. It is run by a gentleman named Zsolt Kerekes. Go check it out.

Yup, we must be get ready when SSDs hit the mainstream, and ride the wave.

 

 

Can snapshots replace traditional backups?

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Backup is necessary evil. In IT, every operator, administrator, engineer, manager, and C-level executive knows that you got to have backup. When it comes to the protection of data and information in a business, backup is the only way.

Backup has also become the bane of IT operations. Every product that is out there in the market is trying to cram as much production data to backup as possible just to fit into the backup window. We only have 24 hours in a day, so there is no way the backup window can be increased unless

  • You reduce the size of the primary data to be backed up – think compression, deduplication, archiving
  • You replicate the primary data to a secondary device and backup the secondary device – which is ironic because when you replicate, you are creating a copy of the primary data, which technically is a backup. So you are technically backing up a backup
  • You speed up the transfer of primary data to the backup device

Either way, the IT operations is trying to overcome the challenges of the backup window. And the whole purpose for backup is to be cock-sure that data can be restored when it comes to recovery. It’s like insurance. You pay for the premium so that you are able to use the insurance facility to recover during the times of need. We have heard that analogy many times before.

On the flip side of the coin, a snapshot is also a backup. Snapshots are point-in-time copies of the primary data and many a times, snapshots are taken and then used as the source of a “true” backup to a secondary device, be it disk-based or tape-based. However, snapshots have suffered the perception that it is a pseudo-backup, until recent last couple of years.

Here are some food for thoughts …

WHAT IF we eliminate backing data to a secondary device?

WHAT IF the IT operations is ready to embrace snapshots as the true backup?

WHAT IF we rely on snapshots for backup and replicated snapshots for disaster recovery?

First of all, it will solve the perennial issues of backup to a “secondary device”. The operative word here is the “secondary device”, because that secondary device is usually external to the primary storage.

Tape subsystems and tape are constantly being ridiculed as the culprit of missing backup windows. Duplications after duplications of the same set of files in every backup set triggered the adoption of deduplication solutions from Data Domain, Avamar, PureDisk, ExaGrid, Quantum and so on. Networks are also blamed because network backup runs through the LAN. LANless backup will use another conduit, usually Fibre Channel, to transport data to the secondary device.

If we eliminate the “secondary device” and perform backup in the primary storage itself, then networks are no longer part of the backup. There is no need for deduplication because the data could already have been deduplicated and compressed in the primary storage.

Note that what I have suggested is to backup, compress and dedupe, AND also restore from the primary storage. There is no secondary storage device for backup, compress, dedupe and restore.

Wouldn’t that paint a better way of doing backup?

Snapshots will be the only mechanism to backup. Snapshots are quick, usually in minutes and some in seconds. Most snapshot implementations today are space efficient, consuming storage only for delta changes. The primary device will compress and dedupe, depending on the data’s characteristics.

For DR, snapshots are shipped to a remote storage of equal prowess at the DR site, where the snapshot can be rebuild and be in a ready mode to become primary data when required. NetApp SnapVault is one example. ZFS snapshot replication is another.

And when it comes to recovery, quick restores of primary data will be from snapshots. If the primary storage goes down, clients and host initiators can be rerouted quickly to the DR device for services to resume.

I believe with the convergence of multi-core processing power, 10GbE networks, SSDs, very large capacity drives, we could be seeing a shift in the backup design model and possible the entire IT landscape. Snapshots could very likely replace traditional backup in the near future, and secondary device may be a thing of the past.

Solid State Drives … are they reliable?

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There’s been a lot of questions about Solid State Drives (SSD), aka Enterprise Flash Drives (EFD) by some vendors. Are they less reliable than our 10K or 15K RPM hard disk drives (HDDs)? I was asked this question in the middle of the stage when I was presenting the topic of Green Storage 3 weeks ago.

Well, the usual answer from the typical techie is … “It depends”.

We all fear the unknown and given the limited knowledge we have about SSDs (they are fairly new in the enterprise storage market), we tend to be drawn more to the negatives than the positives of what SSDs are and what they can be. I, for one, believe that SSDs have more positives and over time, we will grow to accept that this is all part of what the IT evolution. IT has always evolved into something better, stronger, faster, more reliable and so on. As famously quoted by Jeff Goldblum’s character Dr. Ian Malcolm, in the movie Jurassic Park I, “Life finds a way …”, IT will always find a way to be just that.

SSDs are typically categorized into MLCs (multi-level cells) and SLCs (single-level cells). They have typically predictable life expectancy ranging from tens of thousands of writes to more than a million writes per drive. This, by no means, is a measure of reliability of the SSDs versus the HDDs. However, SSD controllers and drives employ various techniques to enhance the durability of the drives. A common method is to balance the I/O accesses to the disk block to adapt the I/O usage patterns which can prolong the lifespan of the disk blocks (and subsequently the drives itself) and also ensure performance of the drive does not lag since the I/O is more “spread-out” in the drive. This is known as “wear-leveling” algorithm.

Most SSDs proposed by enterprise storage vendors are MLCs to meet the market price per IOP/$/GB demand because SLC are definitely more expensive for higher durability. Also MLCs have higher BER (bit-error-rate) and it is known than MLCs have 1 BER per 10,000 writes while SLCs have 1 BER per 100,000 writes.

But the advantage of SSDs clearly outweigh HDDs. Fast access (much lower latency) is one of the main advantages. Higher IOPS is another one. SSDs can provide from several thousand IOPS to more than 1 million IOPS when compared to enterprise HDDs. A typical 7,200 RPM SATA drive has less than 120 IOPS while a 15,000 RPM Fibre Channel or SAS drive ranges from 130-200 IOPS. That IOPS advantage is definitely a vast differentiator when comparing SSDs and HDDs.

We are also seeing both drive-format and card-format SSDs in the market. The drive-format type are typically in the 2.5″ and 3.5″ profile and they tend to fit into enterprise storage systems as “disk drives”. They are known to provide capacity. On the other hand, there are also card-format type of SSDs, that fit into a PCIe card that is inserted into host systems. These tend to address the performance requirement of systems and applications. The well known PCIe vendors are Fusion-IO which is in the high-end performance market and NetApp which peddles the PAM (Performance Access Module) card in its filers. The PAM card has been renamed as FlashCache. Rumour has it that EMC will be coming out with a similar solution soon.

Another to note is that SSDs can be read-biased or write-biased. Most SSDs in the market tend to be more read-biased, published with high read IOPS, not write IOPS. Therefore, we have to be prudent to know what out there. This means that some solution, such as the NetApp FlashCache, is more suitable for heavy-read I/O rather than writes I/O. The FlashCache addresses a large segment of the enterprise market because most applications are heavy on reads than writes.

SSDs have been positioned as Tier 0 layer in the Automated Storage Tiering segment of Enterprise Storage. Vendors such as Dell Compellent, HP 3PAR and also EMC FAST2 position themselves with enhanced tiering techniques to automated LUN and sub-LUN tiering and customers have been lapping up this feature like little puppies.

However, an up-and-coming segment for SSDs usage is positioning the SSDs as extended read or write cache to the existing memory of the systems. NetApp’s Flashcache is a PCIe solution that is basically an extended read cache. An interesting feature of Oracle Solaris ZFS called Hybrid Storage Pool allows the creation of read and write cache using SSDs. The Sun fellas even come up with cool names – ReadZilla and LogZilla – for this Hybrid Storage Pool features.

Basically, I have poured out what I know about SSDs (so far) and I intend to learn more about it. SNIA (Storage Networking Industry Association) has a Technical Working Group for Solid State Storage. I advise the readers to check it out.

Silent Data Corruption (SDC) …it’s more prevalent that you think

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Have you heard about Silent Data Corruption (SDC)? It’s everywhere and yet in the storage networking world, you can hardly find a storage vendor talking about it.

I did a paper for MNCC (Malaysian National Computer Confederation) a few years ago and one of the examples I used was what they found at CERN. CERN, the European Center for Nuclear Research published a paper in 2007 describing the issue of SDC. Later in 2008, they found approximately 38,000 files were corrupted in the 15,000TB of data they generated. Therefore SDC is very real and yet to the people in the storage networking industry, where data matters the most, it is one of the issues that is the least talked about.

What is Silent Data Corruption? Every computer component that we use is NOT perfect. It could be the memory; it could be the network interface cards (NICs); it could be the hard disk; it could also be the bus, the file system, the data block structure. Any computer component, whether it is hardware or software, which deals with the bits of data is subjected to the concern of SDC.

Data corruption happens all the time. It is when a bit or a set of bits is changed unintentionally due to various reasons. Some of the reasons are listed below:

  • Hardware errors
  • Data transfer noise
  • Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
  • Firmware bugs
  • Software bugs
  • Poor electrical current distribution
  • Many more …

And that is why there are published statistics for some hardware components such as memory, NICs, hard disks, and even protocols such as Fibre Channel. These published statistics talk about BER or bit-error-rate, which is the occurrence of an erroneous bit in every billion or trillion of bits transferred or processed.

And it is also why there are inherent mechanisms within these channels to detect data corruption. We see them all the time in things such as checksums (CRC32, SHA1, MD5 …), parity and ECC (error correction code). Because we can detect them, we see errors and warnings about their existence.

However, SILENT data corruption does not appear as errors and warnings, and they do OCCUR! And this problem is getting more and more prevalent in modern day disk drives, especially solid state drives (SSDs). As the disk manufacturers are coming out with more compact, higher capacity and performance drives, the cell geometry of SSDs are becoming smaller and smaller. This means each cell will have a smaller area to contain the electrical charge and maintain the bit-value, either a -0 or -1. At the same time, the smaller cell is more sensitive and susceptible to noise, electrical charge leakage and interference of nearby cells as some SSDs has different power modes to address green requirements.

When such things happen, a 0 can look like a 1 or vice versa and if the error is undetected, this becomes silent data corruption.

Most common storage networking technology such as RAID or file systems were introduced during the 80’s or 90’s when disks were 9GB, 18GB and so on, and FastEthernet was the standard for networking. Things have changed at a very fast pace, and data growth has been phenomenal. We need to look at storage vendors’ technology more objectively now and get more in-depth about issues such as SDC.

SDC is very real but until and unless we learn and equip ourselves with the knowledge, just don’t take things from vendors verbatim. Find out … and be in control of what you are putting into your IT environment.